States of 'Muhyeong' and 'Yuhyeong' in ITF Taekwon-Do

At the end of 2023 I gave a presentation at Youngsan University's 4th International Taekwondo Conference on the muhyeong-principle in ITF Taekwon-Do. It has been my intention to develop it into an academic paper to submit with a journal, but I've been too distracted to work on that, so I'm deciding to share my draft here on my blog to the benefit of the ITF community, while I hopefully finish the paper for publication in the future. 

From Decisiveness to Adaptability: The Muhyeong-Principle in (ITF) Taekwon-Do

Introduction: Karate's Kime and Taekwon-Do's Jipjung

Taekwondo developed from a Japanese karate—mostly Shotokan Karate—foundation and although Taekwondo evolved into a uniquely Korean martial art, it still retains remnants of both technical methodology and philosophy that are rooted in Japanese martial culture. One example is the notion of kime (決め), which refers to the conspicuous full body tension performed by the karateka at the final moment of a technique. From a technical perspective, this full body tension is supposed to make the body into a solid, immovable structure to fully transfer the technique’s force into the target and prevent possible negative effects from any rebound force. The term kime literally translates as “decision,”^[1] and connotes firm decisiveness; in other words, kime suggests an unwavering execution of the technique decided upon. The isometric concentration of the whole-body musculature in kime is a manifestation of the karateka’s decisive technique. This unwavering decisiveness also manifests in the early formation of the attacking or blocking tool. When performing techniques in karate, the practitioner will keep the hand shape the same from start to finish. For instance, if the technique to be performed is a punch the hand will remain in a fist shape from beginning to end; similarly, if the technique is to be an open-handed strike, the hand will be kept in the knife-hand shape throughout the execution of the movement. This consistency in the “form” of the hand reflects kime’s connotation of an unwavering decision: once the decision to perform either a punch or a strike is made, it is resolutely executed. Within the broader context of Japanese martial arts, one may understand kime, then, as a technical expression of another idea in some Japanese martial arts, including Shotokan karate, namely: ichigeki hissatsu (一撃必殺) which translates as “one punch, certain death” or the more euphemistic expression ichigeki hitsutou (一撃必倒), “one punch, certain victory”.^[2] As such, kime which is primarily a biomechanical feature in karate also lends itself to psychological or philosophical interpretation.

Taekwondo inherited a version of kime from karate. But in taekwondo it is known as jipjung (집중), which translates as “concentration” or “focus”; the term is based on the hanja 集中, which literally translates as gathering everything together to a central point. As such, Taekwon-Do’s jipjung is employed “to concentrate every muscle of the body … towards the appropriate tool … at the proper time … onto the opponent’s vital spot”^[3]. 

In Kukki Taekwondo (the style of Taekwondo under the auspices of the Kukkiwon) the shape of the attacking or blocking tool is also predetermined like in karate; in other words, a punch will start from the hip in the shape of a fist, and a knife-hand strike will also be in the knife-hand shape from the very start of the technique. While the physical manifestation of kime is still visible in the performance of taekwondo’s fundamental movements—for instance in poomsae—, the associated Japanese philosophy of a decisive, victorious action is somewhat lost in translation, as the Korean word jipjung doesn’t have the same decisive connotation as is the case with the Japanese word kime. Instead, taekwondo’s jipjung implies the bringing together of all elements, movements, circumstances, and mental focus into a focussed point; in other words, one’s total energy focussed into the metaphoric bullseye by means of a perfect technique. 

ITF Taekwon-Do also retained the kime / jipjung principle of a whole-body isometric contraction at the final moment of the technique; however, the predetermined formation of the attacking or blocking tool has disappeared from ITF Taekwon-Do’s techniques. In ITF Taekwon-Do, techniques must initiate from a state of relaxation, and unnecessary tension of muscles while performing a movement is strongly discouraged as any engagement of antagonist muscles is believed to negatively affect the speed and resultant power with which the technique can be performed. Therefore, in performing a hand technique, the hand is kept relaxed and without any predetermined form; it is only concentrated into its appropriate shape moments before impact. For example, when performing a punch, the hand remains in “no-form” (neither flexed open nor tightly clenched closed) ^[4] and only concentrates into a fist as the hand nears the target; similarly, when performing a knife-hand strike the hand is relaxed into the hand’s natural unengaged shape and not prematurely opened into the knife-hand shape—the hand will only stiffen into this striking tool prior to contact with the target and during the moment of jipjung. 

States of Muhyeong and Yuhyeong

While the full body tension and the moment of contact with the target does have a designation in Taekwon-Do, namely jipjung, thus far this relaxed methodology that encourages a “no-form” shape of the hand does not have an official nomenclature—apart from general descriptions such as “relaxed” or “lightly clenched” and “not tightly clenched”. After research and discussions with various Korean martial art scholars I decided to designate the Sino-Korean word muhyeong (무형, 無形), which literally translates as “no form” or “without form”—implying something that is “intangible” or “amorphous”—for this principle. This is a fitting description for this relaxed “no-form” aspect in ITF Taekwon-Do techniques before they have morphed into a recognizable tool such as a knife-hand or fist shape. Inversely, the word yuhyeong (유형, 有形), meaning “physical form” or “tangible shape” can be applied to describe the attacking or blocking tool when it has “formed” into its appropriate shape moments before and during the final jipjung-climax. 

Of course, it goes without saying that when we describe the hand as being in a state of muhyeong we do not mean it literally, as if the hand is liquid or vaporous. The hand still retains the natural bio-tensegrity or fascintegrity that is innate to the living structure of complex organisms.^[5] Also, the wrist is never allowed to go limp, but is kept in a neutral position, neither bent up or down nor left or right. A hand in a state of muhyeong simply means that it is naturally relaxed and not formed into a blocking, attacking, or grappling tool. Contrariwise, a hand in a state of yuhyeong is formed into a specific tool. Muhyeong has the primary biomechanical function of keeping the limb relaxed (iwan, 이완, 弛緩), free from unnecessary antagonist muscle tensions so as not to hamper the technique’s speed. 

Techno-Philosophical Interpretation

Apart from its primary function as a method for relaxing antagonist muscles, the muhyeong-notion is also ripe for further interpretation. 

Different Approaches: Decisiveness versus Adaptability

In Karate, kime, as a “decisive” action, implies that once the karateka decides on a technique they ought to be fully committed in its execution, hence the shape of the attacking or blocking tool is predetermined and remains the same from start to finish. It would be considered “wrong,” within the Karate-context, to change one’s mind halfway through the execution of the technique. For instance, once the karateka decides to do a fore fist punch, it is improper to second-guess the decision and suddenly change the technique into a fingertip thrust, as techniques should be performed without hesitation. As such, kime in Karate resonates with a similar idea in several Japanese martial arts, namely sutemi (捨身). A literal translation of sutemi is “abandoning the body,” suggesting self-sacrifice. The implication is a total commitment to every technique without thought of any repercussions. Hence, the highest point one can achieve in Judo is called an “ippon” (一本), translating to one full point or decisive victory^[6]. Both kime and ippon emphasize the importance of decisiveness and achieving a clear outcome attained by complete commitment to executing a technique with full intention and power.

On the other hand, the muhyeong-principle in ITF Taekwon-Do frees the practitioner from such predetermination. Since the attacking or blocking tool only fully manifests in a proper shape (yuhyeong) towards the end of the movement, the Taekwon-Do practitioner is theoretically free to adapt the technique as the situation changes. Therefore, it is quite acceptable within the Taekwon-Do context to change a technique strategically: a punch may become a backfist strike; a front kick may suddenly change into a turning kick; a side kick might suddenly morph into an offensive hook kick. Those familiar with Taekwon-Do sparring will immediately recognize this as a common strategic feature of Taekwon-Do. For instance, kicks are often adapted mid-execution to adjust for the opponent’s movements or to exploit new openings in their guard. Furthermore, this helps to prevent a level of telegraphing, because even when the movement has started the exact technique is not fully knowable until near the end of its execution. 

Relation to East Asian Philosophy

I believe that this muhyeong concept is consistent with some East Asian philosophical ideas that have a long historic association with East Asian martial arts theory. 

Eum-Yang

First, the Daoist concept of taegeuk, (태극; Chinese: 太極, taiji) and its associated eumyang-principle (음양; Chinese: 陰陽, yinyang), is a core idea in East Asian cosmology and often used by East Asian martial arts as a theoretical bases for describing techniques. There are already several approaches for understanding the eumyang-principle in taekwondo. For instance, Dr Stephen Capener argues for interpreting the eumyang-principle as “full and empty space” to explain Taekwon-Do sparring strategy.^[7] For him, during a sparring match, the dynamic interchange of the competitors’ limbs in motion and inevitable appearance and disappearance of viable targets for attack represent “full” and “empty” spaces. An understanding of such full and empty spaces allows for both strategic sparring application and philosophical interpretation. Furthermore, some Korean scholars promote the idea of gangyu (강유, 剛柔), meaning “hardness and softness,” as an application of the eumyang-principle in Taekwon-Do but viewed through a Neo-Confucian lens. Gangyu can basically be understood as those particular binary aspects in Taekwon-Do, such as offensive and defensive techniques. My proposal of “form” and “no-form” (in ITF Taekwon-Do) is likewise an exploration of the eumyang-principle. If a Taekwon-Do technique has a moment of deliberate high tension, where the whole body is concentrated into an unmoving, isometric firmness (in other words, jipjung), it only makes sense that it should also have the opposite, namely a phase of deliberate relaxation (iwan) and fluidity. Similarly, since a technique is only recognized as such at the final moment when it expresses into its clearest form (yuhyeong), it goes without saying that it also has a preformed or amorphous state (muhyeong). 

Muwi 

This muhyeong idea, which allows a practitioner a level of liberty to adapt the technique naturally according to changing circumstances resonates with yet another concept from Daoist philosophy, namely muwi (무위; Chinese: wuwei, 無為), which translates as “non-doing” or “no effort”. Within Daoist teaching, this doesn’t literally mean to not do anything, but rather not to force a situation and instead allow things to unfold naturally. Many martial arts have taken up the muwi principle to mean that a good technique is one in which the greatest result is achieved with the least amount of effort. This principle of efficacy directly relates to the biomechanical purpose of muhyeong which is to ensure that only the necessary agonist muscles are engaged in their proper sequence, and the antagonist muscles are appropriately relaxed, subsequently resulting in the most efficacious movement. 

Mugeuk and Mushim

Furthermore, in Daoist thought mu (無) does not mean mere nothingness; instead, it relates to the “Void” (無極; Korean: mugeuk, 무극), the place of incipience, which contains all potentialities. For the trained martial artist this connects to that spontaneous, reflexive, and masterful bringing forth of the right technique at the right time; in other words, the most appropriate technique hitting the best target at just the right moment. This is different from the kime-concept that implies an active decision. From a Daoist paradigm, the most appropriate technique is not “decided” but rather allowed to manifest without conscious thought naturally and spontaneously. Just as the hand can be described as in a state of muhyeong, so the whole person—body and mind—may manifest muhyeong. This is not conceived as a structureless body and unconsciousness mind, but rather as a body filled with potentiality and a mind open to all options. Daoist and Buddhist meditative practices calls this mental state mushim (무심; Chinese: wushin, 無心; Japanese: mushin). Mushim suggests a mental state of no-mindedness; or a “mind empty of all thought or emotion” so that it is able “to respond to any external stimuli, allowing free expression of any response technique.”^[8] In other words, the ability to do defensive and counter-attack techniques reflexively, without thinking. 

This muhyeong state is of course a transitional state, from a state of potentiality to the yuhyeong state of actuality. As the transition happens, the various potentialities or technique possibilities become fewer and fewer, until finally only one possibility remains. In practise this means that the movement starts out relaxed, but slowly more muscles will become engaged until finally all muscles are engaged. Thus, yuhyeong and jipjung converge. When, from the vast sea of potential techniques, the most appropriate technique is actualized, perfection occurs. Or as Capener puts it: “bringing order to chaos through skillful technique.”^[9] Of course, for this to occur the practitioner must have physically mastered various potentialities, which is a great arsenal of efficacious techniques (or fundamental movements). Only then can the most appropriate technique come forth without conscious thought or physical restraint. As such, muwi as a philosophical extension of muhyeong does not mean no effort in training, but rather so much training and mastery of techniques that when a technique is performed it seems effortless, which is—as all martial artists know—the difference between the novice and the expert. This implies that fundamental movements ought to be trained—or rather—drilled to such a level that they can manifest effortlessly. 

Practical Considerations

Returning from the philosophical to the practical, there are important technical aspects regarding the point of impact with the target that is crucial to discuss. We may ask: ‘When, during the execution of the movement, is the moment of contact with target?’ To make the question more tangible, let’s focus on a specific technique, the front fore fist punch: ‘When performing a front fore fist punch, at what point of the arm’s extension (and the hand’s rotation) should the fist reach its target?’ Asked differently, ‘When should the full transformation from muhyeong to yuhyeong occur?’

There are two reasons these questions are crucial. First, if the hand is still in a state of muhyeong at the moment of impact with the target, there is a high possibility of the hand getting injured since it is not formed into a proper, stable attacking tool (yuhyeong) that can withstand the force of the impact. It is therefore imperative that the hand not make impact with the target too early. Second, all techniques accelerate and then suddenly decelerates at the end of the movement. The deceleration can happen either because it reached its target (e.g., the fist hits the opponent), or because the arm has reached its full extension, which means it naturally stops. The implication of this is that since force is the product of mass times acceleration, the highest moment of the technique’s force cannot be at the very end when the limb is fully extended, as by that time it has decelerated to zero. Ergo, the highest moment of potential force is a point along the trajectory, when the limb is at its highest point of acceleration, before any deceleration starts. Therefore, we want to ideally hit the target at this point when the limb’s speed is at its greatest, which is a point before the limb is fully extended. But how can we know when that is?

Taekwon-Do convention advocates that when performing a front fore fist punch, the punch should rotate upon contact with the target. Various reasons for this rotation are proposed, but I’ll leave that aside for now. What I want to focus on here is simply that, according to tradition, the fist should rotate on the target. What this implies, then, is that the moment the fist starts rotating is also conceivably the moment of initial impact—the full rotational corkscrew of the fist is supposed to coincided with the deeper penetration of the technique towards the true target that is beyond the surface skin. For instance, when we aim for the solar plexus, we are not merely aiming for the spot right under the sternum, but rather for a point deeper within the torso.^[10]

Different instructors promote different times in the execution of the punch for the rotation to occur. Some suggest the final third of the movement, others say at the last quarter before full extension. Unfortunately, scientific studies that measure the highest moment of acceleration in all ITF Taekwon-Do techniques are yet to be done.^[11] There are, however, some studies with regards to punches in Karate and Kukki Taekwon-Do worth mentioning. Based on punching experiments mentioned by Master Nakayama, the “maximum speed occurs at just around 70 percent of full extension”^[12]. An academic article focussing on Karate punches states that the “maximum speed was recorded as a point between 70 and 80 [percent]” of full extension.^[13] The Kukkiwon’s Taekwondo Textbook (2022) suggests that this point is at “80% of the arm’s length”.^[14] So the oral tradition in ITF Taekwon-Do that advocates for the rotation to start at around the final quarter of the movement seems to be correct.

What this suggests is that by this point (i.e., the point of highest velocity), yuhyeong (i.e., the formation of the attacking tool) ought to occur. Of course, the point of highest velocity will be slightly different depending on the technique and also purpose. But until scientific research is done to determine the likely points for different techniques, we can—for practical purposes—assume the same rule of thumb that the point of highest velocity occurs at roughly 75% of the full extension of the limb, or around the final quarter of the technique.

Earlier in this discussion it may have seemed that I equated yuhyeong and jipjung. However, based on the preceding it is obvious that this is not the case. Yuhyeong occurs slightly prior to jipjung. Yuhyeong (the formation of the tool) happens at around three-quarters of the movement, while jipjung (isometric concentration of the whole body) is a bit closer to the end of the movement. However, the precise commencement of the two are within fractions of a second of each other. Though they do conclude at the same time. 

Conclusion

A very important departure in ITF Taekwon-Do’s evolution out of Karate is the muhyeong-principle. This kinaesthetic principle has technical, strategic, and philosophical applications and implications. Technically it contributes to more relaxed movement which are theoretically capable of greater acceleration. It is important, however, to keep practical considerations in mind when employing the muhyeong-principle. While muhyeong may have some technical advantages, it may also lead to possible injuries when practitioners fail to apply yuyeong in time. For instance, if it is not formed into an appropriate blocking, attacking, or grappling tool before contact with the opponent, the hand might be injured. Strategically, the muhyeong-principle allows for greater adaptability. Taekwon-Do techniques are allowed to change mid-execution to adapt for changes in the combat dynamics. This level of freedom may have contributed to Taekwon-Do’s creative expression that led to the creation of various innovative techniques. And philosophically the muhyeong-principle resonates with Daoist concepts such as muwi and mushim. For people who find this East Asian philosophical interpretations too esoteric, I recommend another interpretive lens, that of Sport Psychology. The same muwi and mushim ideas can be understood as part of the “flow” state, which is a mental condition where an athlete is fully immersed in their performance; it is often described as being “in the zone,” where athletes experience a merging of action and awareness, making their performance effortless and automatic.

^[1] The equivalent Korean word is gyeoljeong (결정, 決定), meaning decision or resolution. However, this term is not commonly employed to describe Taekwon-Do techniques.

^[2] General Choi famously also made a calligraphy of this phrase (一撃必倒), which is printed in the ITF Taekwon-Do Encyclopaedia. The Korean (일격필승) Romanizes as ilgyeok pilseung.

^[3] Choi, H. H., (1999). Encyclopaedia of Taekwon-Do. Vol. 2, p. 20. 

^[4] Another Korean martial art, Subyeok-Chigi (수벽치기), which has a similar concept of not forming the attacking tool prematurely, calls this hand shape banjum (반줌), literally “half fist”. I use this term when I want to discuss the relaxed hand shape before it concentrates into a tool specifically; when I want to keep the philosophical idea of muhyeong and yuhyeong out of the discussion.

^[5] Bordoni, B., Varacallo, M. A., Morabito, B., and Simonelli, M. (June 03, 2019). “Biotensegrity or Fascintegrity?” Cureus 11(6): e4819. DOI 10.7759/cureus.4819

^[6] The ippon is to Judo what the knockout punch is to Western boxing: clear victory.

^[7] Capener, S. D. (1995.) “Problems in the Identity and Philsophy of T’aegwondo and Their Historical Causes.” Korea Journal. (1995: Winter.)

^[8] Rielly, R. L. (1998). Complete Shotokan Karate: The Samurai Legacy and Modern Practise. (p. 80.)

^[9] Capener, S. D. (1995.) “Problems in the Identity and Philsophy of T’aegwondo and Their Historical Causes.” Korea Journal. (1995: Winter.)

^[10] The solar plexus is a common target in many martial arts. However, few people realize how deep the solar plexus is within the body. What is known as the “solar plexus” is a cluster of nerves roughly 10-12 cm from the front surface of the body, nearer to the front of the spine. It is very unlikely that one would penetrate the body from the front with a punch deep enough to reach the solar plexus. The usual effects we witness from strikes to the solar plexus is probably due to the shock to other organs that are much closer to the surface, such as the diaphragm. 

^[11] Regrettably, I doubt there is an ITF organization with the desire to start such a project even though such studies would be invaluable to the scientific understanding of ITF Taekwon-Do. I can only hope that my work inspire other individual Taekwon-Do scholars with the knowledge and means to undertake such research.

^[12] Nakayama, M. (1967). Dynamic Karate. 

^[13] Walker, J. D. (1975). “Karate Strikes”. American Journal of Physics. Vol 43:10 (pp. 845-849).
^[14] Choi, C. & Lee, S. (2022). Taekwondo Textbook: 2 Basic. Kukkiwon.

Some Thoughts on Martial Arts and Body Culture

An interest of mine is “Body Culture” (German: "Körperkultur"); basically, the study of cultural ways of moving. Here in Korea where I live, I can often very easily recognize a non-Korean from afar or from the back simply by the way they walk. I can also often accurately recognize Koreans that grew up abroad or lived abroad for a long time. Body movement is “regional” and can be acquired like an accent. Something I am slowly researching is how cultural ways of moving affect martial arts. I've already written a bit about it with regards to the “sine wave movement” on this blog and am currently working on a book about the topic (but it will still be a while before it's finished as I'm focusing on my PhD at present). For this short post, I want to show a small example of the relationship between a culture and their way of moving in the martial arts. The indigenous religion of Japan is Shinto.

Although Shinto does not have specific moral “doctrines,” it has a type of moral aesthetic. To quote Shinto priest Motohisa Yamakage: “Shinto conceives of good and evil in aesthetic terms, likening them to straight and curved lines. To the Japanese sensibility, a straight line is inherently beautiful. It need not be rigidly straight, but its emphasis should be forward and positive, signifying organic growth, clarity, and honesty” (The Essence of Shinto: Japan's Spiritual Heart, 2012:44, 45). There is an assumption people have about Karate—that Karate's linear movements developed for practical purposes based on the idea that the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. What if Karate movements evolved to look the way they do not primarily because of their practicality, but because the cultural “sensibility” is that straight lines are “good,” while curved lines are “evil”? One can see something of this in the difference between Karate as it is practiced in mainland Japan where Shintoism is particularly emphasized, as opposed to on Okinawa.

I propose that while this might be a weird concept to accept for people unfamiliar with body culture, it becomes less strange once you start to look at the dances cultures. I have asserted before that there is a connection between Korean folk dance, Taekkyeon and ITF Taekwon-Do. They all share a particular Korean three-beat rhythm and a peculiar “bounciness”, or what is known in Korean folk dance as “verticality”. When one looks at Japanese performing arts and dances, one can also see similarities with Karate. Neither is it surprising that Chinese martial arts and Chinese performing arts (Chinese opera) greatly overlap.

The idea that in the traditional martial arts we move in certain ways, that kata or patterns are performed in particular ways, strictly based on efficiency or practicality of technique is an assumption. I'm not denying that practical considerations are indeed part of the way the martial arts move, but one cannot deny the influence of a cultural context of the martial arts—of body culture. There are reasons all the martial arts around the world do not look and move the exact same way. If it was all about the most “effective” technique, then there should have been much more uniformity. The cultural context has a big influence on the body culture, and in turn on the martial arts that developed in those cultures. Body culture may be influenced by such obscure things as an aesthetic appreciation of straight lines over curved lines, or the cultural folk rhythms, and many other variables.

What does this mean for martial artists? For one, there is a difference between a martial art which is embedded with a cultural heritage as opposed to a pure (if such a thing exists) combative system. The next time you practise Taekwon-Do, or Shotokan Karate, or Whin Chun, or Capoeira, or Savate, to name just these few martial arts as examples, know that you are not simply learning fighting techniques, you are also learning a particular cultural way of moving your body—you are in fact learning a body culture.

Early Influences on Taekwon-Do

Taekwon-Do was established when a group of Kwan merged together under the umbrella term Tae Kwon Do. The word Kwan 관 / 館 is a Korean word that literally means house, building, hall, gymnasium or school, but has the connotative meaning of a family or clan—a martial art clan; i.e. a group of martial artists that share the same culture, philosophy and technique. In the 1940s the original five Kwan were established: Song Moo Kwan, Chung Do Kwan, Moo Do Kwan, Chang Moo Kwan, and Jidokwan. In the 1950s a further four Kwan were established: Han Moo Kwan, Oh Do Kwan, Kang Duk Won and Jung Do Kwan. (See this French website for a quick overview of how the nine Kwan fit together.)

By looking at what martial arts were practiced in these original Kwan and/or by their founders we can get a good idea as to which martial arts contributed to what are the actual roots of this modern Korean martial art known as Taekwon-Do. The umbrella name Tae Kwon Do was accepted in 1955, and the official Korea Taekwondo Association was first established in 1959/60 and finally affirmed in 1965. To complete this exercise our focus will be on looking at the martial arts practised in these Kwan by 1960; in other words, those martial arts that contributed to “original Tae Kwon Do.” Taekwon-Do has changed dramatically since 1960; however, our aim here is not to see how Taekwon-Do had turned out, but merely to see what the original ingredients for Taekwon-Do were.

Song Moo Kwan founder Roh Byung Jick is said to have practiced as a child techniques that he saw practiced at local Buddhist temples. It is uncertain what exactly the martial art was that was practiced at these temples. Later in life Roh went to Japan to study where he practiced Shotokan Karate under Gichin Funakoshi.

Chung Do Kwan founder Lee Won Kyeok secretly practised Taekkyeon as a child. Later he also went to Japan to study and practised Shotokan Karate under Gichin Funakoshi. He claimed to have also traveled to China were he practised Kung Fu. It is uncertain what style of Kung Fu he had practised; he was however the first to use the term Tang Soo Do (Chinese-Hand-Way) for his style. However, Tang Soo is the Korean rendition of Kara-Te or Karate. The original forms practised by the Chung Do Kwan was the Pyong-Ahn forms, which are basically the Pinan kata from Okinawa that were used in Shotokan Karate under the name Heian.

Moon Duk Kwan was founded by Hwang Kee. He supposedly studied Taekkyeon by himself as a boy by copying a Taekkyeon expert he saw in his neighborhood; however, he didn't have any formal training in Taekkyeon. As a railway worker he often travelled to Manchuria (China) where he practised Kung Fu. In 1957 a librarian from Korea National University in Seoul gave him access to the Muye Dobo Tongji, an ancient Korean martial art manuscript. From this he extrapolated Soo Bahk, an old Korean form of combat. Because Hwang Kee did not want to unify into the new Taekwon-Do system, it is uncertain how much his martial art knowledge contributed to what became early Taekwon-Do.

Chang Moo Kwan was founded by Yoon Byung In who had studied Kung Fu (Baji Quan known as Balji Kwon in Korean) in Manchuria under a Mongolian instructor. He also practised Shudokan Karate in Japan with Kanken Toyama.

Jido Kwan founder Chun Sang Sup practiced Shotokan Karate under Gichin Funakoshi in Japan. Although he called his style Kong Soo Do, it was basically just Karate. Chun Sang Sup was also close friends with Yoon Byung In (Chang Moo Kwan) and frequently trained with him. They sometimes travelled to Manchuria together where they practised in Kung Fu, probably Baji Quan. The Jido Kwan also had Judo ties. (It was the first gym to teach Judo in Korea.)

Han Moo Kwan founder Lee Kyo Yoon was originally a student of Chun Sang Sup (Jido Kwan). His style was most probably based on Shotokan Karate with some Kung Fu influence and may have included some Judo.

Oh Do Kwan was founded by General Choi Hong Hi (known as the “Father of Taekwon-Do” and Nam Tae Hi (Choi's “Right-Hand Man”). General Choi practiced in some Taekkyeon as a child and later studied Shotokan Karate under Gichin Funakoshi while at university in Japan. The Oh Do Kwan system was used in the South Korean military. Most of the military instructors that taught the Oh Do Kwan system was originally from the Chung Do Kwan, including Nam Tae Hi.

Kang Duk Kwan was founded by two Chang Moo Kwan students, Hong Jong Pyo and Park Chul Hee. It is accepted that their style was not much different from Chang Moo Kwan: Kung Fu (Baji Quan) and Shudokan Karate.

Jung Do Kwan was founded by Young Woo Lee, a former student of Chung Do Kwan. It is accepted that their style was not much different from Chung Do Kwan: Mostly Shotokan Karate with some Taekkyeon and Kung Fu incluence.

From this list we can get a good idea of the original influences on what became known as Taekwon-Do. The strongest influence was undoubtedly Shotokan Karate. Other influences were Taekkyeon and Kung Fu, probably Baji Quan. We can expand this list by looking at the “Original Twelve Taekwon-Do Masters.” This group was put together by the Korea Taekwon-Do Association in 1960 to promote Taekwon-Do. Apart from their training in Taekwon-Do under the leadership of General Choi Hong Hi and Nam Tae Hi, some of them were also versed in western boxing, Judo, and gymnastics. It is also believed that General Choi Hong Hi incorporated Hapkido (at the time probably Hapki-Yusul) into the system to expand the self-defence arsenal. General Choi Hong Hi who was the first person to write a book on Taekwon-Do and later also the ITF Encyclopaedia had the strongest influence in standardizing the original syllabus that was used by the Korea Taekwon-Do Association, therefore his martial art experience in Taekkyeon and Shotokan Karate is the be considered the most influential, particularly as far as ITF Taekwon-Do, of which he was the founder and first president, is concerned. Also strongly influential on ITF Taekwon-Do were the original instructors that were mostly from the Chung Do Kwan. Again Taekkyeon and Shotokan Karate are the major influences, along with some Kung Fu.


Regarding ITF Taekwon-Do, which is my primary style and the main topic on this blog, I stand by my view that Shotokan Karate and Taekkyeon are the two main roots. Other noteworthy influences of which we can observe some technical material in ITF Taekwon-Do are Western Boxing, Judo, Hapki-Yoosool and maybe some Kung Fu.

What's the Difference Between Taekwon-Do and Hapkido?

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Since I have black belts in both (ITF) Taekwon-Do and Hapkido, I guess that I am in the position to answer that inevitable question: “What is the difference between Taekwon-Do and Hapkido?” The most common answer to this question is that:

Both Taekwon-Do and Hapkido are Korean martial arts and have as part of their respective arsenals kicking and striking techniques, as well as joint manipulation and throwing techniques, but that there is a difference in emphasis. Taekwon-Do emphasizes kicking and striking and Hapkido emphasizes joint manipulation and throwing.

The problem with this answer is that it doesn't really discuss the actual difference, the actual uniqueness of the two martial arts. It is pointing out their similarity and then arguing for a difference in degree. Basically this answer is saying that the two martial arts are essentially the same, like hot water and cold water that are in essence the same, but only different in temperature. That there is a difference in emphasis is true and may satisfy the curiosity of someone with little or no real knowledge of the martial arts, but for anyone else, the answer of emphasis seems, at worst a sign of little depth of understanding of the two martial arts, or at least a sign of explanatory laziness. To truly answer the question thoroughly will require an extensive discussion stretching many many pages! For this reason I am indeed guilty of explanatory laziness. However, in this post I will attempt to highlight some real differences between Taekwon-Do and Hapkido. Since my own study is mostly in ITF Taekwon-Do, this is where my focus will be: the difference between ITF Taekwon-Do and Hapkido (Footnote 1). Note, that there are people much more experienced who have studied both arts for a much longer time than myself, that are better qualified to answer the question.


Different Names, Different Origins

Not surprisingly, a good place to start is to see why there exists such an emphasis on the different techniques. In other words, why does Hapkido emphasize joint manipulation and throws and Taekwon-Do emphasize kicking and striking. As someone that spends his time with words (Footnote 2), I believe there is much to be learned from names.

Just by looking at the name Tae Kwon Do (foot-fist-way), it is already obvious that the emphasis in Taekwon-Do is kicking and striking. Taekwon-Do has two main roots, a native Korean root and a foreign Japanese root: Taekkyeon and Karate, respectively. The principle founder of Taekwon-Do, General Choi Hong-Hi, practised in Taekkyeon as a child and later in Shotokan Karate while studying in Japan.

Taekkyeon

Taekkyeon is a martial art with great emphasis on foot techniques which are often circular in nature (crescent style kicks). Taekkyeon kicks are frequently used for attacking the lower limbs—foot sweeps, but also include some high crescent kicks, as well as jumping kicks. There are also hand techniques in Taekkyeon that focus mostly on grabbing, pulling or pushing the opponent, often in combination with foot sweeps or foot hooks; the aim being to topple the opponent. The first syllable in Taekwon-Do was deliberately chosen to mimic the first syllable in Taekkyeon.

The second part of Taekwon-Do—i.e. “kwon”—means to “break or smash with the fist or hand,” sometimes translated into English merely as “[fighting] fist” or “boxing.” This connects with Taekwon-Do's Japanese root in Karate 空手. The name Karate literally translates as “empty hand” (Footnote 3). Many of Taekwon-Do's techniques derive from Karate, especially Shotokan Karate.

Korean marines training during the Vietnam War
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Taekwon-Do's chief developed as a modern martial art occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. By the time the term “Tae Kwon Do” was chosen, the emphasis on “foot-fist-way”, i.e. the way of kicking and striking, was already firmly established. However, during this time other styles such as judo and the early forms of Hapkido were also practised in Korea. General Choi who pioneered and oversaw Taekwon-Do training in the South Korean military and some of the other pioneers who were also versed in these martial arts included techniques from these styles. Now joint-manipulation and throwing and other grappling techniques became part of the Taekwon-Do arsenal, but more as a “self-defence” supplementation than part of the core syllabus.

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The opposite happened with Hapkido. It is generally accepted that Hapkido started with Choi Yong-Sul, a Korean man that acted as a servant in the household of a Daito Ryu Aiki-Jujutsu master. What is Aiki-Jujutsu? Tokyo Asahi explained it as follows in 1930: “This technique is a perfect self-defense art where you avoid being cut, hit or kicked, while at the same time you don't hit, kick or cut. As the attack comes you handle it expediently using the power of your opponent. So even women and children can execute these techniques.” (Footnote 4) In other words, Aiki-Jujutsu did not emphasize kicking and hitting / striking. It was based on exploiting the momentum of the attacker, focusing on throwing and joint-manipulation. When Choi Yong-Sul returned to Korea from Japan after WWII, he began to teach, what he called Yusul. “Yu-” is the Korean pronunciation for “Ju-” in Japanese, as found in “Jujutsu” or “Judo.” It literally means “soft”; “Yusul” means soft techniques, in other words techniques that exploit the opponent's motions by pulling or pushing the opponent and manipulating his limbs. Soft-styles are low on active offensive techniques like kicking and striking. Because Yusul might be confused with Judo (Judo in Korean is Yudo), Grandmaster Choi later changed the name from Yusul to Yu Kwon Sul; i.e. “soft-fist-techniques.” This change in name also indicates that something additional came into what he was teaching. It wasn't just “soft techniques,” meaning joint-manipulation and throwing techniques, anymore, but now also included “fist” techniques. A strong cross-pollination with the modern eclectic styles in Korea occurred, especially in the late 1950s—at this time the hard styles had already merged under the umbrella term “Taekwon-Do” in 1955. This early form of Hapkido began to include techniques from the prevailing Korean styles such as kicking techniques and striking techniques. By the time new names for this style such as Hapki Yusul and Hapki Yu Kwon Sul and Kido emerged, it goes without saying, that “soft techniques” was still the foundation and kicking and striking were supplementary. In the middle of the 1960s the International Taekwon-Do Federation, i.e. ITF Taekwon-Do, was established. At the same time the name Hapkido became widely accepted. Hap-ki-do can be translated as “coordinate-energy-way” or the Way of Harmonious Energy. Unlike the earlier name Yu Kwon Sul, or even Tae Kwon Do, that basically describe the techniques these styles emphasize, the name Hapkido (Footnote 5) is more a description of underlying principles.

So far we have established why there exists a difference in the type of techniques emphasized in Taekwon-Do and Hapkido respectively. From their very start Taekwon-Do focused on kicking and striking and Hapkido focussed on “soft techniques”—joint manipulation and throwing techniques. Kicking and striking is something that was incorporated into Hapkido later in its development and similarly joint-manipulation and throwing techniques were also assimilated into Taekwon-Do when it was already established as a foot-fist-way. So what are the truly unique things in these individual Korean styles?

Arresting Techniques

We find the answer when looking at the early authorities that used these styles. Taekwon-Do was from its very beginning a military combative system. The spearhead for Taekwon-Do was the 29th Infantry Division of the South Korean military, which developed towards the end or shortly after World War II and the Korean War. It was later again battle tested in the Vietnam War. Hapkido on the other hand was taken up by the Korean Police Force. The brutality of Taekwon-Do that was appropriate for the battlefield was ill-equipped for controlling civilians. Unlike a soldier who uses combat to kill or seriously injure an enemy, a police officer is there to protect civilians. For this, a police officer needs techniques that can control a person, without causing serious harm or killing them. Hapkido provided the solution.

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Joint-manipulation techniques in Hapkido are used to control the opponent by either causing pain—resulting in pain compliance—or physically manipulating the skeletal system or musculature of the person. Either way, it is possible to physically control the opponent, or literally pin the opponent down on the floor. This usually involves what is generally known as joint-locks. In the police force such techniques are invaluable. In Korean these techniques are known as chepo-sulgi 체포술기, from the verb chepo-hada 체포하다 that basically means arresting or apprehending. In other words, these are techniques used by law enforcement to arrest or apprehend a person.

ITF Taekwon-Do does not have chepo-sulgi or joint locks. Joint-manipulation in Taekwon-Do are not used to control (i.e. arrest or “lock”) an opponent, but to break the joint. A typical self-defense maneuver in Hapkido for when somebody grabs your wrist is to put the opponent's grabbing hand into a wrist lock. The equivalent in Taekwon-Do is not a joint-lock but a joint-break. For such self-defense scenarios the ITF Encyclopaedia prescribes three solutions: an attack, a release with counter-attack, or a break. In other words, if someone were to grab your wrist you can defend yourself from this by either directly attacking your attacker with your free limbs; or you “release” yourself by pulling your wrist free from his grip and then doing a counter-attack; or you can break the opponent's wrist. The ITF Encyclopaedia does not provide as one of the options joint-manipulation to cause pain to the opponent's joint. The ITF Encyclopaedia is very specific about the fact that it is a joint-breaking technique. Any joint-locks or chepo-sulgi currently found in ITF Taekwon-Do is something that was added much much later and is not part of the original curriculum (i.e. it is not in the ITF Encyclopaedia).

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Furthermore, Hapkido has many techniques used for pinning the opponent against the floor or against a wall. Such techniques are used to keep the opponent immobilized until more police backup arrives and the person is formally arrested and taken away. Taekwon-Do does not have pinning techniques. Instead it offers various attacks for finishing off the opponent while he is on the floor, which is inline with Taekwon-Do's function as an originally military combat system.

Here we see a true distinction between Taekwon-Do and Hapkido. Hapkido has chepo-sulgi—arresting or locking and pinning techniques—that Taekwon-Do just doesn't have.

Weapons

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Something else that Hapkido has is weapons. Weapons were not part of the original practice in Hapkido, but with time a variety of weapons became part of the curriculum, such as the short stick, the staff, the cane, the nunchaku and the sword. Taekwon-Do may sometimes include weapon practice, but this is only as a means to an end. Defense against weapons is part of the Taekwon-Do curriculum, so many instructors feel that in order to properly defend oneself against a weapon, you should understand the weapon and these instructors therefore teach basic principles for using different weapons. Actual weapon training merely for the sake of using weapons is not part of the Taekwon-Do curriculum.


Patterns

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Something that Taekwon-Do has, which Hapkido for the larger part does not have, is patterns or forms. In ITF Taekwon-Do they are known as teul 틀, while in WTF Taekwon-Do the word poomsae 품새 is more generally used. Historically the term hyung 형 was used. Patterns are basically a series of fundamental movements sequenced together to form a hypothetical combative encounter with an imaginary opponent. It is basically a type of choreographed shadow boxing and is common in many oriental martial arts. The purpose is to train certain sequences of fundamental movements, including footwork, balance, rhythm, breath control, and other qualities.The patterns are also used as a vehicle for teaching about Korean history, philosophy and oriental etiquette and ethics.

Other

There are a number of other things both similarities, with different emphases, and unique differences that I have not included. For instance, Ki / Gi. In Hapkido there is a focus on Ki-training. ITF Taekwon-Do acknowledge the value of Ki, but training focusses primarily on the application of Newtonian physics. Or Korean history and oriental etiquette and ethics (“Moral Culture”) that are heavily emphasized in ITF Taekwon-Do, but not as much in Hapkido. Of course, each style also have some unique techniques; for instance both Taekwon-Do and Hapkido have unique kicks that they do not share with each other. How power generation works in the two styles also differ. Hapkido, for example, focus on the danjeon, while Taekwon-Do focus on the waist—danjeon and waist are possible synonyms, with slight differences in meaning. There is much still that can be discussed. I didn't even mention choking techniques, for instance. As I said earlier, a comprehensive analysis of the differences of the two styles would take a very very long time.

Conclusion

Taekwon-Do and Hapkido are both Korean martial arts and both developed primarily out of Korean and Japanese styles. Taekwon-Do was strongly influenced by Japan's hard style Karate, while Hapkido evolved out of the Japanese soft style Aiki-Jujutsu. While Taekwon-Do and Hapkido developed to both include kicking and striking, and joint-manipulation and trowing techniques, there has been a difference in emphasis from the start: Taekwon-Do focussing more on kicking and striking and Hapkido focussing more on joint-manipulation and throwing. Apart from the difference in emphasis, Taekwon-Do was rooted as a military combat system, while Hapkido grew to function within the police force. Hapkido therefore developed techniques useful for the police in arresting and apprehending civilians, while Taekwon-Do's techniques remained brutish, for use against foreign enemies, not native civilians. This resulted in Hapkido having “arresting techniques”, but Taekwon-Do not. Hapkido also incorporated weapon training as part of its eclectic arsenal. Taekwon-Do does not emphasize weapon training, although it does emphasize defense against weapons. Furthermore, Taekwon-Do has patterns which are often used to teach Korean history, philosophy, oriental etiquette and ethics, and other technical skills. Traditionally, Hapkido does not have patterns and doesn't emphasize the teaching of Korean history, philosophy and oriental ethics. These are just some of the major differences between these two Korean arts.



Footnotes:


Footnote 1: My Hapkido black belts are from the Korea Hapkido Federation 대한합기도협회 and Korean Hapkido Federal Union 대한합기도총연맹. My primary training has been with instructors from the Korea Hapkido Federation.


Footnote 2: I'm a university lecturer in an English Department and teach, among other things, poetry. A big part of the study of poetry is to understand the denotative meaning of words.


Footnote 3: Although Karate 空手 currently translates as empty hand, it used to translate as Tang hand. Tang referring to China's Tang Dynasty. Karate's roots, in other words, are to be found in China. The Korean martial art Tang Soo Do translates as Tang Hand Way. It is sometimes called Karate-Do, or Korean Karate. Tang Soo Do is basically a Koreanized version of Karate.


Footnote 4: Tedeschi, M. 2000. Hapkido: Traditions, Philosophy, Technique


Footnote 5: It is noteworthy that Hapkido 合氣道 and Aikido 合気道 (a Japanese style that also developed out of Aiki-Jujutsu around the same period) means practically the same. However, unlike Hapkido that included a large variety of kicks and strikes into its syllabus, Aikido developed separately without such offensive techniques.

Balgyeong in ITF Taekwon-Do and the Taekkyeon Connection

[Update note: 2024. I have changed my mind on this, and do not think that the balgyeong in ITF is from Taekkyeon. However, I'm not deleting this post as this blog is for me also a testament to my own growth and understanding.]

Balgyeong in ITF Taekwon-Do, just like the sine wave motion, did not develop out of nowhere. In my mind there is a definite root from which both these ideas came and I believe that root is to be found in Taekkyeon. If Shotokan Karate is the source for the hard techniques in ITF Taekwon-Do, then Taekkyeon is, at least in part¹, the base for the soft techniques in ITF Taekwon-Do.

In the video clip below, from BBC Three's Mind, Body & Kick Ass Moves, Taekkyeon Grandmaster Do Gi-Hyun talks about the differences in motion between Japanese hard styles, Chinese soft styles, and traditional Korean styles. Yes, these are generalizations, but notice when he demonstrates Korean styles that he is in fact doing a balgyeong motion. (You can see it from around 2:05 to 2:25.)



I have spoken to Grandmaster Do about the fact that ITF Taekwon-Do has much in common with Taekkyeon. He wasn't too open to the possibility and I do not blame him. WTF Taekwon-Do is adamantly claiming a lineage from Taekkyeon, but when one looks at WTF Taekwon-Do’s fundamental movements it doesn’t resemble Taekkyeon at all. WTF Taekwon-Do is too Karatesque for such a claim to be taken seriously. However, the “bounciness” of ITF Taekwon-Do is in my opinion very Taekkyeon-like and having practiced Taekkyeon I’ve become convinced that this is the origin of the sine wave motion. Grandmaster Choi Hong-Hi, ITF Taekwon-Do's principle founder, trained somewhat in Taekkyeon as an adolescent under his calligraphy master. It seems like these early experiences started to seep back into ITF Taekwon-Do during its later development. Apart from the “bounciness” we share with Taekkyeon, there is also a shared “relaxation” and “subtleness.” While the focus in Karate is in speed, the focus in ITF Taekwon-Do is not speed as such, but acceleration—moving from a relaxed stillness and the accelerating into an explosive snap, and back to being completely relaxed again.

So when I claim that ITF Taekwon-Do contains balgyeong, i.e. fajin, I do not mean that ITF Taekwon-Do was directly influenced by Chinese internal martial arts like Tai Chi Quan or even that the balgyeong in ITF Taekwon-Do is exactly the same as the fajin in Tai Chi Quan or Hsing-I Quan. Yes, I claim a commonality, but not a shared root. ITF Taekwon-Do is definitely not the same as Tai Chi Quan or the same as Hsing-I Quan; still, there are things that they share. That Taekkyeon (and by implication ITF Taekwon-Do) and Tai Chi Quan should share the same type of motion should not be considered odd. Many disparate martial arts have overlapping principles and techniques. It is quite foreseeable that Judo, Samo and Greco-Roman wrestling may all have a couple of shared principles and techniques, even though they developed in different parts of the world. There is only so many ways in which we can use the human body; therefore it is inevitable that cultures from around the world should come to similar conclusions. The bow and arrow was used by the Native Americans, ancient Japanese, and Southern Africa's Bushmen—this weapon presumably developed independently and although they may not look exactly the same in these three societies, the mechanics is pretty much exact. Similarly, the fact that we see balgyeong in Korea's Taekkyeon and ITF Taekwon-Do, in China's Tai Chi Quan and Hsing-I Quan, and Russia's Systema, all with presumably different origins, is not too surprising. What is surprising is that the West hasn't made more of this concept, but that is fodder for another post.



Footnote

1. I say “in part,” because besides the Taekkyeon root, Taekwon-Do had some other influences as well in its early development. For instance, Master George Vitale (8th Dan)—one of the foremost Taekwon-Do historians—told me that in its early days Taekwon-Do was exposed to such soft styles as Judo and Hapkido. Be that as it may, it is my conviction that our balgyeong motions germinated from the Taekkyeon connection.